sábado, 3 de abril de 2010

Process Consultation Revisited
Building the Helping Relationship
Edgar H. Schein

Process Consultation and the Helping Relationship in Perspective

In this chapter I want to summarize, comment on and reflect on what has come before. Someof the questions I want to address were stimulated by the detailed feedback from mycolleague, Otto Scharmer and his wife Katryn who read the manuscript carefully and
thoughtfully. I am grateful for their suggestions.

I also benefited greatly from the reviews of four colleagues – Dick Beckhard, Warner Burke, Michael Brimm, and David Coghlan.

Their thoughts and suggestions have been incorporated into this volume and have strengthened it greatly. What then is to be said in a concluding chapter? First, I want to revisit the ten principles of process consultation because I find them increasingly helpful as a diagnostic of where I have gone wrong when things do not work out as I expected them to. Then, I want totake up some remaining issues, especially pertaining to the teaching of process consultation.

Ten Principles as the Essence of Process Consultation

In reflecting on process consultation and the building of a “helping relationship,” the questionarises: where is the emphasis or the essence that makes this philosophy of helping“different”? Why bother to learn all of this stuff.

In my reflections on some 40 years of practicing “this stuff,” I have concluded that the essence is in the word relationship.

To put it bluntly, I have come to believe that the decisive factor as to whether or not help will occur in human situations involving personality, group dynamics, and culture is the relationship between the helper and the person, group, or organization that needs help. From that point of view, every action I take, from the beginning contact with a client, should be an intervention that simultaneously allows both the client and me to diagnose what is going on and that builds a relationship between us.

When all is said and done, I measure my success in
every contact by whether or not I fell the relationship has been helpful and whether or not the client fells helped. Furthermore, from that point of view, the principles, guidelines, practical tips, call them what you like, fall-out as the kinds of that kind of helping relationship. Let us review the principles from that point of view.

1. Always try to be careful.

Obviously, if I have no intention of being helpful and hardworking at it, it is unlike to lead to a helping relationship. I have found in all human relationships that the intention to be helpful is the best guarantee of a relationship that is rewarding and leads to mutual learning.

2. Always stay in touch with the current reality.
I cannot be helpful if I cannot decipher what is going on in myself, in the situation, and in the

3. Access your ignorance.

The only way I can discover my own inner reality is to learn to distinguish what I know from what I assume I know, from what I truly do not know. And I have learned from experience that it is generally most helpful to work on those areas where I truly do not know. Accessing is the key, in the sense that I have learned that to overcome expectations and assumptions I must make an effort to locate within myself what I really do not know and should be asking about. It is like scanning my own inner database and gaining access to empty compartments.

If I truly do not know the answer I am more likely to sound congruent and sincere when I ask

4. Everything you do is an intervention.

Just as every interaction reveals diagnostic information, so does every interaction have consequences both for the client and me. I therefore have to own everything I do and assess the consequences to be sure that they fit my goals of creating a helping relationship.

5. It is the client who owns the problem and the solution.

My job is to create a relationship in which the client can get help. It is not my job to take the client’s problems onto my own shoulders, nor is it my job to offer advice and solutions in a situation that I do not live in myself.

6. Go with the flow.

Inasmuch as I do not know the client’s reality, I must respect as much as possible the natural nflow in that reality and not impose my own sense of flow on an unknown situation. Once the relationship reaches a certain level of trust, and once the client and helper have a shared set of insights into what is going on, flow itself becomes a shared process.

7. Timing is crucial.

Over and over I have learned that the introduction of my perspective, the asking of a
clarifying question, the suggestion of alternatives, or whatever else I want to introduce from my own point of view has to be tined to those moments when the client’s attention is available. The sane remark uttered at two different tines can have completely different

8. Be constructively opportunistic with confrontive interventions.

When the client signals a moment of openness, a moment when his or her attention to a new input appears to be available, I find I seize those moments and try to make the most of them.

In listening for those moments, I find it most important to look for areas in which I can buildm on the client’s strengths and positive motivations. Those moments also occur when the client has revealed some data signifying readiness to pay attention to a new point of view.

9. Everything is a source of data; errors are inevitable-learn from them.

No matter how well I observe the previous principles I will say and do things that produce unexpected and undesirable reactions in the client. I must learn from them and at all costsavoid defensiveness, shame, or guilt, I can never know enough of the client’s really to avoid errors, but each error produces reactions from which I can learn a great deal about my own and the client’s reality.

10. When in doubt share the problem.

Inevitably, there will be times in the relationship when I run out of gas, don’t know what to do next, feel frustrated, and in other ways get paralyzed. In situations like this, I found that the most helpful thing I could do was to share my “problem” with the client. Why should I assume that I always know what to do next? Inasmuch as it is the client’s problem and reality we are dealing with, it is entirely appropriate for me to involve the client in my own efforts to
These principles do not tell me what to do. Rather, they are reminders of how to think about the situation I am in. They offer guidelines when the situation is a bit ambiguous. Also they remind me of what it is I am trying to do.

Can One Develop a Useful Typology of Interventions?

In previous versions of this book I attempted to categorize interventions. As I reflect on possible ways to do this, I have concluded that such categories are not really useful because they divert one from the more fundamental question of figuring out what will be helpful at any given moment in the evolving relationship. I prefer a general concept of “Facilitative Intervention” that implies that the consultant should always select whatever intervention will be most helpful at any given moment, given all one knows about the total situation.

Certainly the consultant should be familiar with a variety of questions, exercises, survey-feedback technologies, and other forms of intervention many of which have been illustrated in the previous chapters and well described in other books on organization development.

But knowledge of many different kinds of interventions not substitute for the know-how of sensing what is needed “right now” in terms of facilitating forward movement in the relationship. In fact, having a skill set of interventions “at the ready” makes it harder to stay in the current reality because one is always looking for opportunities to use what one believes oneself to be good at. As the saying goes, if all you have is a hammer, everything in the world looks like a nail. What then is the essential skill we are talking about?

Formal Knowledge, Skill, or Tacit Know-How?

When I conduct workshops on process consultation, I am often reminded that much of what I suggest to young consultants may work for me because of my experience and stature, but it would not work for them. This issue has two components.

What exactly do I have that they assume they do not have? And how much of what is relevant to creating a helping relationship is explicit formal knowledge, skill based on formal training, or tacit know-how based on experience? The reader will have noticed that I did not distinguish these three levels of knowledge throughout the previous text.

The reason is that all three are relevant to the creation of a helping relationship. Formal knowledge, such as the simplifying models presented in several of the chapters, is essential. It is especially important for the budding consultant to understand as much as possible about psychology, group dynamics, and organizational dynamics.

But formal knowledge is clearly not enough. With workshop training, apprenticeships, and actual trial and error one develops the skill and – most
important- the know-how that gradually becomes tacit and automatic.

It is in last two
categories of knowledge that I clearly have an advantage over the novice, but I always point out that if an essential element of the philosophy is to deal with reality, then the novice must work from his reality, whatever that implies. Let me illustrate.

If I am working with a manager who is familiar with my work, I know that she understands that I am supposedly expert in this from of consultation. I must appreciate that set of perceptions and make myb interventions accordingly. If a younger, novice consultant goes to that same manager, he knows that the manager is relatively unfamiliar with the consultant’s experience or skill, and
he must therefore operate from reality.

Consequently, we would make quite different interventions, but we each would be trying to build a helping relationship, and we each could succeed. The relationship might evolve differently, but there is nothing in each of our experiences that would automatically determine that I would be more successful than the novice.

When I have observed novice in these situations, their lack of success is invariably connected to not sticking to the principles, of trying to be prematurely expert, or of giving advice when none was called for. Of course, those errors themselves are the result of lack of experience; but this does not invalidate the principles.

If the novice does staying the helperrole, if he stays focused on what has been described here, he will be just as successful as I would be in the same situation.

I have observed this over and over again in my classes on managing planned change where project groups are from time to time trying to help each other with their projects. If I play the role of consultant, I can help, but – more importantly – when I encourage fellow students to try their hand at being helpful, the ones who operate by these principles are as or more helpful than I could have been. It is their insight that is crucial, not their length of experience.

It is their willingness to give up the expert role and deal with current reality that
is crucial, not how many hours of practice they have had. It must also be acknowledged that
the helping relationship is a product of two personalities style.

Two equalities experienced consultants might produce two quite different kinds of relationships, each of which would be helpful.

It is not accidental that a number of my clients did not want to proceed only on the
basis of what contact clients had told them about me. They wanted to meet me and test the “chemistry” between us for themselves. From that point of view, in any relationship, a novice with the right chemistry could do as well or better than an experienced consultant with the wrong chemistry.


In conclusion, tacit know-how and skill are important even the novice consultant has some history of human experiences to draw on. Lack of experience is not nearly as predictive of problems as is not understanding what it means to help someone and not doing one’s best to operate by those principles.

A Concluding Personal Note

I sometimes ask myself why I am so passionate about preaching the stuff. My experience has taught me some lessons that want others to understand. In watching my own helping efforts, and especially in observing the helping efforts of others, I keep rediscovering the same simple truths.

We have learned much about these truths in related fields – psychotherapy,
social work, teaching, coaching. Yet we persist in treating organizational consultation as something different.

Consultants tell me over how important it is to make a formal diagnosis, to write reports, to make specific recommendations, or they feel they have not done their job.
I cannot really figure out why the learning we have acquired in the other helping professions about client involvement, about people having to learn at their own pace, about helping clients to have insights and solve their problems – has not generalized more to the field of management and organizational consulting. If I take a cynical view, I think it is easier to sell products, programs, diagnoses, and sets of recommendations than it is to sell a helping
attitude.

Consulting firms are businesses and they must survive financially, so there is
inevitably a great pressure to have products and services that clients are willing to pay money forever.

However, once consulting becomes a business, I believe it ceases to be consulting in the sense I mean it. It becomes transformed into the sale of some expert services. Consulting firms sell information, ideas, and recommendations. But do they sell help? For me that is the tough question. Helpers also have to make a living and charge for the services. But therapists and social workers do not define their work at the outset in terms of specific longer-range projects involving formal diagnostic methods and formal programs of therapy.


They first build a relationship and only recommend other services as they decide jointly withtheir client that something else is needed. What I find missing in so much managerial and organizational consulting is that initial relationship-building that would permit clients to own their problems and make sensible decisions about whether or not to do a survey, or have an off-site confrontation meeting, or engage in a two year formal change program run by the
The strength of my feeling about the nee to build a relationship first, derives from the experience of working with organizations that have previously been subjected to expert consultant who had formal programs to implement, even though a great deal of money was spent.

As a result, I have to confront again my own reality that help will not happen until the kind of relationship has been built with the various levels of clients we may have to deal with, and that the building of such a relationship takes time and requires a certain kind of attitude from the helper. In the end, then, this book is an attempt to articulate what that attitude is all
The latest addition to the author’s we loved set of process consultation Book, this new volumebuilds on the content of the two that precede it and explores the critical area of the helping relationship.

Process Consultations, Volume 1 (2nd edition) explains the concept of PC and
its role in organization development, focusing on the behavior of the consultant rather thanon the design of the OD program itself. Process Consultation, Volume11 reaffirms PC as aviable model for working with human systems and explores additional theories of PCrelevant to experienced consultants and managers. Now, Process Consultation Revisited focuses on the interaction between consultant and client, explaining how to achieve the healthy helping relationship so essential to effective consultation. Whether the advisor is an
OD consultant, therapist, social worker, manager, parent, or friend, the dynamics between advisor and advisee can be difficult to understand and manage. Drawing on over40 years of
experience as a consultant, Schein creates a general theory and methodology of helping that
will enable a diverse group of readers to navigate the helping process successfully.
Edgar H. Schein is the Sloan Fellows Professor of Management Emeritus and senior lecturer
at MIT’s Sloan School of Management. He started his education at the University of
Chicago, received his B.A. and M.A. from Stanford University, and learned his Ph. D. in
social psychology at Harvard University in 1952. Dr. Schein has published several books,
including Process Consultation, Volume1: its Role in Organization Development (1969,2nd
ed. In 1988), Career Dynamics (1978), Organizational Psychology (1980), Organizational
Culture and Leadership (1985, 2nd ed. In 1992), Career Anchors: Discovering Your Real
Values (1985), and process Consultation, Volume 11: lessons for Managers and Consultants
(1987), as well as numerous journal articles. He is a fellow of the Academy of Management
and the American psychological Association, and he has been a management and
organization development consultant to many corporations and government agencies in the
United Sates and abroad.
helping relationships - principles, theory and practice.

In this article we explore the nature of helping relationships - particularly as they are practised within the social professions and informal education. We also examine some key questions that arise in the process of helping others. In particular, we focus on the person of the helper.

contents: introduction · what do we mean by helping? · the helping person · the helping relationship · does helping involve seeing people in deficit? · are there different stages in the helping relationship? · is helping a skill? · conclusion · further reading · how to cite this piece

'Helping' is one of those taken-for-granted words. It is a familiar part of our vocabulary. Traditionally, for example, social workers, youth workers and support workers have been talked about as members of the 'helping professions'. The question, 'do you need some help?' is part of our daily business as informal educators and social pedagogues. Yet what we mean by 'helping' isn't that obvious - and the qualities we look for in 'helping relationships' need some thinking about. Here we try to clear away some of the confusion.

What do we mean by helping?For many people within the social professions - social work, youth work and community work (Banks 2004: 1-3) - the notion of helping is tied up with counselling and guidance.

The same is probably true of those working within informal education and social pedagogy more broadly. People having to deal with difficult situations and choices, worrying feelings and/or a sense of having missed opportunities may well feel they need someone to listen and to assist them to make sense of what is going on, and to move on.

Sometimes it will be others who judge that it is in the best interests of people that they receive such 'help'. Gerard Egan, whose book The Skilled Helper (first published in 1975) did much to arouse the interest in 'helping' within the counselling arena, has argued that it involves two basic goals. Each of these is based in the needs of the person seeking help.

The first relates to those they are helping to manage specific problems. It is to 'help clients manage their problems in living more effectively and develop unused or underused opportunities more fully (1998: 7). The second helping goal looks to their general ability to manage problems and develop opportunities. It is to help 'clients become better at helping themselves in their everyday lives' (Egan 1998: 8).

As well as being linked to counselling and guidance, helping is often used to talk about specific moments of teaching e.g. 'helping' someone with their homework or filling in an income-support form.

It is also associated with giving direct physical assistance - for example, helping someone to wash or to go to the toilet - or practical aid such as giving clothing or money.

Many of the people whose work Smith and Smith explored in The Art of Helping Others (2008) - youth workers, housing support workers; priests, nuns and lay workers within churches and religious groups; and learning mentors - engaged in all these areas and placed an emphasis upon developing and sustaining relationships


The helping we explore here is characterized and driven by conversation; explores and enlarges experience; and takes place in a wide variety of settings (many not of the helper’s making).

However, describing the role exclusively in terms of counselling or teaching or educating narrows things down too much for us. Making sense of what these people are actually doing and expressing entails drawing upon various traditions of thinking and acting. This form of helping involves listening and exploring issues and problems with people; and teaching and giving advice; and providing direct assistance; and being seen as people of integrity. (Smith and Smith 2008: 14)

The processes and approach to helping that is being discussed here overlaps a lot with what we know as informal education - but it also goes beyond it. Helpers are concerned with learning, relationship and working with people to act on their understandings.

However, they also step over into the world of counselling. They do this by being experienced as a particular kind of person and drawing upon certain skills, not by taking on the persona of counsellor (British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy 2002; Higson 2004).

Counselling entails a more formalized relationship than what we are talking about as helping; and is based in a specific set of traditions of thinking and practice.

Thus, the helping relationship in the context of therapy and counselling feels and looks different to the helping relationship in the context of pastoral care or housing support - but more of this later.

The helping person - caring, committed and wise

To reword Parker Palmer (2000: 11) good helping is rather more than technique; it comes from the identity and integrity of the helper' (Parker Palmer was talking about teaching). This means that helpers both need to know themselves, and seek to live life as well as they can. They need to be authentic.

In a passage which provides one of the most succinct and direct rationales for a concern with attending to, and knowing, our selves Parker Palmer draws out the implications of his argument.

Teaching, like any truly human activity, emerges from one's inwardness, for better or worse. As I teach, I project the condition of my soul onto my students, my subject, and our way of being together.... When I do not know myself, I cannot know who my students are. I will see them through a glass darkly, in the shadows of my unexamined life – and when I cannot see them clearly, I cannot teach them well.
When I do not know myself, I cannot know my subject – not at the deepest levels of embodied, personal meaning. I will know it only abstractly, from a distance, a congeries of concepts as far removed from the world as I am from personal truth. (Parker Palmer 1998: 2)

If we do not know who we are then we cannot know those we work with, nor the subjects we teach and explore.

As well as knowing themselves, Smith and Smith (2008) argue that helpers also need certain other qualities. When people search for someone to help them reflect upon and improve their lives, they tend to be drawn into relationship with those who are seen or experienced as caring, committed and wise. They are liable to look around for help from people whom they can approach easily and with confidence. They ask people they know who they would recommend and/or approach those they already know to offer helping relationships.

Compassion
In Zen and the Art of Helping David Brandon argued that 'The real kernel of all our help, that which renders it effective, is compassion' (1990: 6). He continues:

Compassion is being in tune with oneself, the other person(s) and the whole world. It is goodness at its most intuitive and unreflecting. It is a harmony which opens itself and permits the flowing out of love toward others without any reward. It avoids using people as tools. It sees them as complete and without a need to be changed. (Brandon 1990: 60)

Ideas like these are difficult to handle within the way many people talk about professionalism - but there is considerable evidence that people are better able to explore questions and issues when they are in the presence of a helper who accepts and respects them, listens and cares. David Brandon put caring and concern to alleviate suffering at the core of helping.

Caring
When considering caring and caring relationships it is helpful first to distinguish, as Nel Noddings does, between 'caring about' and 'caring for'.

Caring-for someone, according to Noddings, involves sympathy - feeling with. It also entails being open to what the other person is saying and might be experiencing and reflecting upon it. However, there is also something else here. When caring for another we have to be concerned with the interests of the that person.

Carers have to respond to the cared-for in ways that are, hopefully, helpful. For this to be called 'caring' a further step is needed. There must also be some realization on the part of the cared-for that an act of caring has occurred.

Caring involves connection and relationship between the carer and the cared-for, and a degree of reciprocity. Both gain from the relationship in different ways and both give (see Smith 2004).

Caring-about is more abstract. When we talk about caring-about it usually involves something more indirect than the giving immediate help to someone. For example, we may care-about the suffering of those in poor countries. In this we are concerned about their plight. This may lead to us wanting to do something about it - but the result is rarely care-for. More usually, we might give money to a development charity, or perhaps join a campaigning group or activity that seeks to relieve 'third world' debt.

Nel Noddings argues that we learn first what it means to be cared-for - particularly in families and close relationships. 'Then, gradually, we learn both to care for and, by extension, to care about others' (Noddings 2002: 22). This caring-about, Noddings suggests, is almost certainly the foundation for our sense of justice.

Wisdom
Smith and Smith (2008: 57-69) have argued that helpers need to cultivate wisdom - both in themselves and those they help. It is quality which especially attracts people to them for help. However, while they possess expertise:

... often it is not just the knowledge they pass on or the advice they give that makes them special. Rather it is how they are with us, and we with them. We can feel valued and animated and, in turn, value them. Out of this meeting comes insight. (Smith and Smith 2008: 57)

The thing about wisdom is that it is usually associated by others to particular people rather than claimed by them. It generally means that the person so labelled is seen as having a deep understanding, a regard for truth, and an ability to come to sound judgements.

For helpers, Smith and Smith suggest, this involves them appreciating what sort of things might make for happiness and for people to flourish; and being knowledgeable especially about themselves and relationships, around ‘what makes people tick’, and the systems of which we are a part.

The helping relationshipRelationship is a human being’s feeling or sense of emotional bonding with another. It leaps into being like an electric current, or it emerges and develops cautiously when emotion is aroused by and invested in someone or something and that someone or something “connects back” responsively. We feel “related” when we feel at one with another (person or object) in some heartfelt way. (Perlman 1979: 23)


When considering the nature of a helping relationship one of the key reference points, perhaps the key reference point, is the work of Carl Rogers. He suggested that a helping relationships could be defined as one in which:

... one of the participants intends that there should come about in one or both parties, more appreciation of, more expression of, more functional use of the latent inner resources of the individual. (Rogers 1967: 40)


We can see that this definition can apply to a counselling-client, parent-child and educator-learner relationship. In other words, Carl Rogers understood that counselling relationships, for example, were just special instances of interpersonal relationships in general (op. cit.: 39). Furthermore, he concluded that 'the degree to which I can create relationships which facilitate the growth of others as separate persons is a measure of the growth I have achieved in myself' (op. cit.: 56)

Rogers goes on to suggest that people will be prepared to explore things once they believe that their feelings and experiences are 'both respected and progressively understood' (Thorne 1992: 26). We can see this belief at work in his best known contribution - the 'core conditions' for facilitative helping - congruence (realness), acceptance and empathy.

Exhibit 1: Carl Rogers on the interpersonal relationship in the facilitation of learning

What are these qualities, these attitudes, that facilitate learning?

Realness in the facilitator of learning. Perhaps the most basic of these essential attitudes is realness or genuineness. When the facilitator is a real person, being what she is, entering into a relationship with the learner without presenting a front or a façade, she is much more likely to be effective.

This means that the feelings that she is experiencing are available to her, available to her awareness, that she is able to live these feelings, be them, and able to communicate if appropriate. It means coming into a direct personal encounter with the learner, meeting her on a person-to-person basis. It means that she is being herself, not denying herself.

Prizing, acceptance, trust. There is another attitude that stands out in those who are successful in facilitating learning… I think of it as prizing the learner, prizing her feelings, her opinions, her person. It is a caring for the learner, but a non-possessive caring. It is an acceptance of this other individual as a separate person, having worth in her own right. It is a basic trust - a belief that this other person is somehow fundamentally trustworthy…

What we are describing is a prizing of the learner as an imperfect human being with many feelings, many potentialities. The facilitator’s prizing or acceptance of the learner is an operational expression of her essential confidence and trust in the capacity of the human organism.

Empathic understanding. A further element that establishes a climate for self-initiated experiential learning is emphatic understanding. When the teacher has the ability to understand the student’s reactions from the inside, has a sensitive awareness of the way the process of education and learning seems to the student, then again the likelihood of significant learning is increased…. [Students feel deeply appreciative] when they are simply understood – not evaluated, not judged, simply understood from their own point of view, not the teacher’s. (Rogers 1967 304-311)


Carl Rogers' exploration of the helping relationship, and his formulation of the core conditions has stimulated a lot of debate and some disagreement. For example, there are questions around empathy; whether we ever stand in someone else's shoes (this is why Nel Noddings talks about 'sympathy').

This said the spirit and direction of what Rogers says, and the framework that these conditions offer, provides us with a good starting point and orientation to exploring and fostering helping relationships.

Does helping involve seeing people in deficit?
Some people are put off the notions of 'helping' and 'helping relationships' by a feeling that it inevitably creates inequality - and a strong possibility of approaching people as being in deficit.

David Brandon (1990) was very alive to this possibility in his exploration of helping relationships. Indeed, he looked at some of the different ways in which helpers can hinder the development and flourishing of those they seek to help. One common means is through focusing too strongly on institutional and bureaucratic ways of defining the situations and experiences of people. In order to access resources people often have to either define themselves, or be defined as, in deficit or needy.

A current UK example of this is how young people are deemed to be NEET (not in employment, education or training) so that the agency can get additional funding for the work and meet targets. The labelling and data-sharing involved can quickly work against the interests of the young people involved, invade their right to privacy, and inhibit the creation of the sorts of space and relationships they need to flourish.

Unfortunately too, the simply act of naming ourselves 'professional' can feed into an unthinking assumption that we know best. 'Sometimes "helping" is simply a thin veneer over the top of robust hindering' Brandon argued (1982: 6).

These concerns led him to be careful when talking of compassion, to distinguish between such caring and pity. The latter, he believed inevitably embodied a tendency to superiority, to looking down on the other. 'Real compassion is often uncomfortable and disturbing', he wrote. 'It enlightens rather than lubricates. It has few intentions and works in an unflaunting way and unselfconscious way' (1990: 58).

A similar set of concerns has emerged with respect to aid relationships and assistance to communities and areas seen as being in need of economic and social development and has led to the surfacing of 'helping theory'. The question arises 'How can 'helpers' assist those who are undertaking autonomous activities [doers] without overriding or undercutting their autonomy?'. David Ellerman (2001) has argued for five principles:

Help must start from the present situation of the doers.

Helpers must see the situation through the eyes of the doers.

Help cannot be imposed on the doers, as that directly violates their autonomy.

Nor can doers receive help as a benevolent gift, as that creates dependency.

Doers must be in the driver's seat.

All this does not minimize the expertise and knowledge of helpers - it simply places them as partners in an endeavour and puts a premium on conversation, relationship and developing shared understandings.

Are there different stages to the helping relationship?Many of the books that explore helping and/or counselling skills use stage theory. This is possible when looking at counselling or more formal relationships as they generally involve some sort of specific contract or agreement to work together.

This will usually include something about the number, time, duration and frequency of sessions. It is, thus, pretty easy to think about the sorts of steps or stages the helping relationship might involve. For example Gerard Egan (2002) structures his influential model around three stages:

Stage I: What’s going on? Helping clients to clarify the key issues calling for change.

Stage II: What solutions make sense for me? Helping clients determine outcomes.

Stage III: What do I have to do to get what I need or want? Helping clients develop strategies for accomplishing goals.

He has altered these stages over the years since the first edition of his book appeared back in 1975. Then his stages were: building the helping relationship and exploration; developing new understandings and offering different perspectives; and action – helping the client to develop and use strategies. The changes are interesting in that they reflect criticism made of the model, research into the helping process, and years of conducting training programmes.

Many other writers also use a three stage model. Put at its most simple (and probably most useful) the helping or working relationship is seen as having a beginning, middle and end (see, for example, Culley and Bond 2004). Alistair Ross (2003) provides a similar model: starting out, moving on and letting go.

However, stage models have less use for many informal educators and social pedagogues. The sort of relationship generally involved in informal and community education and in things like pastoral care does not generally involve an explicit contract and the time, duration and frequency of encounters (rather than meetings) is highly variable. Endings can be extremely abrupt, for example.

This said, by focussing on beginnings, middles and endings such models do help us to think about what might be involved at different moments in relationships – and to develop appropriate responses. (Smith 2008: 26)

Is helping a skill?
Much of the literature around helping and helping relationships explores 'helping skills' (see, for example, Carkoff 2000; Egan 2002; Shulman 1979 and Young 1998). In this piece we have approached helping as an orientation and a process.

Whether the help is useful or not, it has been suggested, relates to the relationship between helper and helped and the people they are. In this context skills are significant - but not the main focus. There is a danger of becoming too focused on skill. It is easy to slip into following the form of a particular skill without holding on to who we are, and what our role and relationship is with this person. An example of this is listening.

If we concentrate too much on listening as a skill we can end up spending a lot of time trying to demonstrate that we are listening (through our posture, looks and head nodding) rather than actually listening. If we truly listen to what is being said (and being left unsaid) then this will be communicated to the other person through the sorts of questions we ask, the statements we make and the relationship that develops (Smith 2007: 25).

This said, there are some obvious areas of skill that we can draw upon - and these relate to the process of fostering conversation and exploration. For example, we might look to what Sue Culley and Tim Bond (2004: 2-3) have described as ‘foundation skills’. They group these around three headings (all of which will be familiar in terms of what has gone before):

Attending and listening. In particular Culley and Bond (ibid.: 17-8) are interested in ‘active listening’ by which they mean ‘listening with purpose and responding in such a way that clients are aware they have both been heard and understood’.

Reflective skills. Here Culley and Bond are concerned with the other person’s frame of reference. Reflective skills for them ‘capture’ what the client is saying and plays it back to them – but in our words. The key skills are, for Culley and Bond (ibid.: 18), restating, paraphrasing, and summarizing.

Probing skills. It is often necessary to go deeper, to ask more directed or leading questions (leading in the sense that they move the conversation in a particular direction). Culley and Bond (ibid.: 18-9) look to the different forms that questions can take (and how they can help or inhibit exploration), and to the role that making statements can play.

Making statements is seen as generally gentler, less intrusive and less controlling than asking questions – although that does depend on the statement! Probing tends to increase worker control over both process and content and as a result ‘should be used sparingly and with care, particularly in the early stages of counselling’ (ibid.: 18).

As Alistair Ross (2003: 46) has commented, counselling skills such as these are important and can be developed through reflection and training. However, ‘no matter how good a person’s skills, they must be matched by relational qualities’.

Conclusion
While the notions of 'helping' and helping relationships may lack some precision, they have the great merit of taking us outside some of the usual bureaucratic and professionalized ways of categorizing work in the social professions and informal education. Some of the issues that arise from their use alert us to significant problems and tensions in the work.

Once we unhook ourselves from an over-concentration on skills and look to relationships, the person of the helper, and the nature of the systems people have to work within, then some interesting possibilities arise. As David Brandon recognized, helping is based in relationship and the integrity and authenticity of the helper.

The foundation of genuine helping lies in being ordinary. Nothing special. We can only offer ourselves, neither more nor less, to others - we have in fact nothing else to give. Anything more is conceit; anything less is robbing those in distress. Helping demands wholeheartedness, but people find it hard to give of themselves to others.

Why? In essence we are afraid to offer ourselves for fear we will prove insufficient, and if all that we have and are is not enough, what then? We are afraid to risk using simply our own warmth and caring, and as a result the thousands of therapy techniques which are becoming increasingly popular are intended to conceal rather than reveal. (Brandon 1982: 8-9)

Further reading and references
Brandon, David (1990) Zen in the Art of Helping. London: Penguin Arkana. (First published 1976 by Routledge and Kegan Paul). A landmark book. based in a strong appreciation of the relationship between personal troubles and public issues, and of the contribution that insights from Zen Buddhism could make to helping. See our piece on David Brandon, and read a chapter from the book on compassion.

Kirschenbaum, H. and Henderson, V. L. (eds.) (1990) The Carl Rogers Reader, London: Constable. An excellent collection of extracts and articles . Includes autobiographical material, discussion of the therapeutic relationship, the person in process, theory and research, education, the helping professions, and the philosophy of persons. Also explores the shape of a 'more human world'.

Smith, Heather and Mark K. Smith (2008) The Art of Helping Others. Being around, being there, being wise. London: Jessica Kingsley. When people search for someone to help them reflect upon and improve their lives, they tend to be drawn towards those who are compassionate, committed and wise. This book explores the helping processes and relationships involved and draws upon the experiences and practice wisdom of helpers such as youth workers, housing support workers, the clergy and those working in a religious setting, and education.

relaçõdeajuda

INTRODUÇÃO
produção em saúde por meio da construção de
Conforme dados da Pesquisa Nacional por
significados sobre o serviço de assistência, suas
praticas e cumprimento de demandas(7).
Amostra de Domicílios (PNAD), realizada em 2005, o
número de pessoas com mais de 60 anos é superior a
O Programa Saúde da Família traz em suas
18 milhões, o que corresponde a cerca de 10% da
diretrizes a proposta de atendimento usuário-
população total. Um país pode ser considerado
centrada. É a primeira política de apoio a família
estruturalmente envelhecido, de acordo com a
vulnerável, porém ainda não conta com equipes de
reabilitação(8).
Organização Mundial da Saúde (OMS) quando sua
taxa de idosos ultrapassa 7% da população total(1).
Em decorrencia da escassez do oferecimento
Isso se deve, em parte, ao aumento da
desse tipo de atendimento às populações de baixa
expectativa de vida que tinha média de 64 anos de
renda, a família muitas vezes assume o papel de
idade na década de 90, e será cerca de 73,3 anos em
cuidador do idoso incapacitado. Porém essa família
2025(2). Soma-se a isso a melhora na qualidade de
nem
sempre
tem
condições
de
assumir
vida da população brasileira e a diminuição da taxa
responsabilidades pelo cuidado do idoso de forma
de natalidade, o que leva o Brasil a ter, segundo o
eficiente. Geralmente algum membro da família tem
último censo, cerca de 14 milhões de pessoas com 60
de se sacrificar para exercer essa função. É comum
anos ou mais(3).
que algum familiar pare de trabalhar para cumprir os
Conforme dados do IBGE(3) de acordo com o
cuidados específicos para com o idoso dependente(9).
censo realizado no ano 2000, o número da população
Há também em decorrencia desse novo
de idosos residentes na região sudeste com 60 anos
rearranjo familiar: o luto antecipado, sobrecarga do
ou mais era de 4.984.058. O total relativo desse
papel do cuidador, desajustamento familiar perante a
número foi de 7,9, o maior total relativo se
crise, aumento dos riscos de saúde do cuidador e
mudanças em sua auto-estima(9).
comparado as outras regiões do país. A região
sudeste, portanto, possui a maior população idosa do
A relação de cuidado domiciliar do idoso pela
Brasil, tanto em números absolutos quanto relativos,
família não é nova. A família é elegida como a
e deve fornecer politícas públicas para atender a essa
primeira fonte de cuidados para os idosos e a figura
populacão especifica.
feminina é geralmente a escolhida para exercer essa
função(10).
O aumento da expectativa de vida e os
No
entanto
esse
papel
não
contextos sócio econômicos precários em que grande
desempenhado sem dificuldades e transtornos. Há
parte da população idosa se encontra, contribui para
sobrecargas físicas e emocionais no ato de cuidar do
o aumento da prevalencia e incidencia da
outro. Entre elas destacam-se: o isolamento social,
incapacidade funcional(4). A incapacidade é definida
as mudanças e as insatisfações conjugais, as
como resultante da interação entre a disfunção do
dificuldades financeiras e os déficits na saúde física e
no autocuidado do cuidador(11).
indivíduo, – seja ela orgânica e/ou da estrutura do
corpo – a limitação de suas atividades e a restrição
O desgaste psicológico é grande, pois, um dos
na participação social, sendo que os fatores
motivos que levam o familiar a escolher a função de
ambientais podem atuar como obtáculos ou
cuidador do idoso são as obrigações morais e as
facilitadores para a execução dessas atividades(5).
questões religiosas e culturais. Destaca-se os
Dados da Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de
conflitos emocionais que surgem da ação do cuidar,
Domicílio (PNAD) mostram que a capacidade
pois ao mesmo tempo que o cuidador sente estar-se
funcional dos idosos é fortemente influenciada pela
sacrificando, gratifica-se pelo sentimento de estar
renda domiciliar per capita(6). A baixa renda da
cumprindo seu dever moral e ético. Essas
população idosa e o difícil acesso aos serviços de
redefinições de papéis decorrentes da dependência
saúde agrava ainda mais a situação de incapacidade
do idoso promovem uma reestruturação familiar que
funcional das pessoas com 60 anos ou mais.
provoca alterações na rotina e na dinâmica de toda a
família(12).
Como meio para suprir essas defasagens as
recentes diretrizes para a política nacional de saúde
Diante dessa situação de crise torna-se
têm como prioridade a população idosa e o
importante que as instituições de saúde dêem
acolhimento
dessa
população
pelo
SUS.
O
atenção as necessiades de saúde destes cuidadores.
acolhimento traz princípios para organizar o serviço
O cuidador é o elo entre o idoso e a equipe
multiprofissional(13). É importante, pois, estabelecer o
de uma forma usuário-centrada ao garantir: a
acessibilidade universal para os usuários; a
diálogo com esse cuidador e apreender as suas
reorganização do processo de trabalho, a fim de que
necessidades e dificuldades. Cabe aos profissionais
esse desloque seu eixo central do médico para uma
oferecer além de cuidado e atenção, educação para
equipe multiprofissional; a qualificação da relação
que os cuidadores possam exercer a sua função de
trabalhador-usuário, que deve dar-se por parâmetros
forma a não prejuicar a própria saúde. Resultará
humanitários de solidariedade e cidadania. Pretende-
disso a maior permanência do idoso em seu lar, o
se que o usuário participe efetivamente do modo de
favorecimento da familiaridade e a diminuição dos
Rev. Eletr. Enf. [Internet]. 2009;11(4):923-31. Available from: http://www.fen.ufg.br/revista/v11/n4/v11n4a17.htm.
Ramos TMB, Pedrão LJ, Furegato AR. A relação de ajuda não-diretiva junto ao cuidador de um idoso incapacitado.
riscos e custos em internações hospitalares e
forma, ressalta-se a importância do terapeuta não-
intituições de longa permanência.
diretivo mostrar-se congruente, ao respeitar a pessoa
A partir da abertura desse espaço de diálogo
não apenas através de palavras, mas também
entre profissional e cuidador é que surge a
através de atos e atitudes em sua postura
necessidade
de
se
estabelecer
as
bases
profissional frente ao outro.
metodológicas da relação de ajuda.
A relação de ajuda é, pois, um instrumento de
A relação de ajuda ocorre quando o profissional
grande valor para se estabelecer uma comunicação
cria e mantém com o cliente uma relação na qual
direta, esclarecedora e eficaz ao compreender de
este tem a oportunidade de experimentar uma boa
maneira aberta e livre de preconceitos a situação
relação consigo mesmo para compreender-se melhor
vivenciada
pelo
cuidador
familiar
do
na situação que vivencia. É por isso que essa relação
incapacitado.
deve-se centrar no momento presente (aqui e
É objetivo deste estudo analisar a interação de
agora), mas sempre tendo em mente o processo de
uma profissional psicóloga com uma cuidadora de
uma pessoa idosa incapacitada, com base na teoria
transformação. Perceber o outro no momento
presente é uma forma de respeito e compreensão(14).
de relação de ajuda não-diretiva.
O cliente que se submete a uma relação de ajuda
não-diretiva pode adquirir maior congruência, ou
MÉTODO
seja, comportamentos e atitudes mais adequados ao
Essa pesquisa fez parte de uma pesquisa maior
contexto e que sejam satisfatórios para si e para o os
denominada “Pesquisa e ensino das relações
outros(14).
interpessoais na enfermagem”, cujo projeto foi
A relação de ajuda de orientação não-diretiva
apreciado e aprovado pelo Comitê de Ética em
não focaliza o problema da pessoa com quem o
Pesquisa Envolvendo Seres Humanos da Escola de
profissional estabelece o vínculo, mas centra-se na
Enfermagem de Ribeirão Preto da Universidade de
São Paulo USP (no 0151/2001).
pessoa,
em
seu
desenvolvimento
funcional,
maturidade e nos recursos internos que utiliza para
Trata-se de um estudo de caso que, por meio do
enfrentar os conflitos. Essa comunicação na
referencial teórico da relação terapêutica não-
diretiva(14-20), pretendeu analisar a interação de uma
orientação não-diretiva se dá de forma estruturada e
tecnicamente reconhecida(14). Difere, portanto, de
profissional psicóloga com uma cuidadora de uma
uma conversa comum, pois almeja que o indivíduo
pessoa idosa incapacitada.
restitua as falhas de comunicação onde ele deixou de
A relação terapêutica não diretiva fundamenta-
comunicar-se bem consigo e com os outros(15).
se, de modo geral, em uma abordagem terapêutica
Um requisito fundamental para a relação de
centrada na pessoa atendida, onde a sua historia e
ajuda é a empatia. Nela, o profissional busca
conceitos são compreendidos a luz de suas próprias
conhecer profundamente os problemas do cliente e a
perspectivas e visão de mundo. Para que essa
sua maneira de pensar. Por meio desse conhecimento
relação se estabeleça preceitos como a empatia,
pretende ajudar o cliente a enfrentar e resolver seus
congruência e aceitação incondicional já citados
problemas conforme o seu próprio ponto de vista.
anteriormente, são indispensáveis.
Para isso é necessário que o profissional esteja em
A interação deu-se na casa da própria cuidadora,
uma verdadeira relação de ajuda com o outro,
que morava na região oeste da cidade de Ribeirão
visando, através de sua doação, a capacitação da
Preto-SP, em um bairro de classe média baixa. A
parte ajudada. Para compreender os sentimentos e
cuidadora, a quem chamarei de Sandra, tinha 54
concepções do cliente o profissional deve estar
anos de idade, era solteira e aposentada devido
disposto a aceitar os comportamentos e atitudes do
invalidez no serviço. Ela e a mãe viviam em uma
outro sem preconceitos. Só assim poderá ajudá-lo a
residência pequena de três cômodos e se
compreender suas dificuldades e tomar atitudes
sustentavam com a aposentadoria de Sandra, que
positivas perante elas.
tinha um salário mínimo de renda.
Essa aceitação incondicional deve ser feita
Sandra tornou-se cuidadora da mãe há cerca de
também através dos próprios atos do profissional.
1 ano e meio quando esta caiu e fraturou o quadril. A
Assim, deve-se estar atento a gestos, olhares, e tons
mãe de Sandra se submeteu a duas cirurgias. Na
de voz que podem se mostrar ameaçadores e
primeira colocou pinos. Com a quebra dos pinos, foi
punitivos ao cliente.
internada novamente para a colocação de uma
É de fundamental importância o terapeuta
prótese. No entanto, a partir do acidente, não
adotar internamente uma atitude de profundo
conseguiu mais andar, e, na época da entrevista, iria
respeito e de aceitação total de seu cliente, para que
se submeter a sua terceira cirurgia.
este possa ser compreendido enquanto pessoa(16). O
As atividades da cuidadora eram: dar banho na
homem necessita de um clima permissivo para que
mãe, levá-la ao banheiro, alimentá-la e mudá-la de
possa fazer simbolizações corretas e ter liberdade
posição em vários momentos do dia. A mãe de
experiencial para as elaborações interiores(15). Dessa
Sandra tinha 84 anos e se encontrava em bom
Rev. Eletr. Enf. [Internet]. 2009;11(4):923-31. Available from: http://www.fen.ufg.br/revista/v11/n4/v11n4a17.htm.
Ramos TMB, Pedrão LJ, Furegato AR. A relação de ajuda não-diretiva junto ao cuidador de um idoso incapacitado.
estado mental. No período da entrevista a cuidadora
Sandra: - ... porque a bunda está doendo muito
se submeteu a uma cirurgia de hérnia de disco, mas
(coloca a mão na boca e indica o gravador, parece
não pode repousar para desempenhar os cuidados
envergonhada ao ter dito a palavra “bunda” enquanto
com a mãe.
a entrevista estava sendo gravada).
Sandra, sujeito do estudo, foi escolhida devido a
Nesse momento é indicado à participante,
um conhecimento prévio do caso através da
através de um gesto, que não haveria problemas em
vizinhança do bairro onde morava.
dizer nomes que a moral social consideraria chulos,
No primeiro contato, foram explicados os
gesto esse, que tentou deixar a participante mais à
objetivos da pesquisa. Foi informado à participante
vontade e disposta a expressar seus pensamentos e
que seria realizada uma “conversa” onde ela pudesse
sentimentos.
contar a sua vivência ao ser cuidadora de sua mãe
O começo da conversa foi marcado por
acamada. Informou-se que os dados seriam
perguntas fechadas tais como: “Eu queria saber, o
coletados por intermédio de um gravador de voz, se
que a sua mãe tem?” “Qual é o problema dela?” “A
sua mãe tem quantos anos?”. Entretanto acredita-se
a participante concordasse. A participante concordou
com o uso do gravador e com a participação na
que o modelo pergunta-resposta não colabora para o
pesquisa,
e,
assim,
assinou
o
Termo
de
desenvolvimento
de
uma
atmosfera
Consentimento Livre e Esclarecido.
relacionamento
positivo
e
cordial,
onde
A interação aconteceu em maio de 2008 e teve
entrevistado pode conhecer-se melhor e descobrir os
duração de 70 minutos. Foi realizada na casa da
recursos internos para enfrentar o problema que
vivencia(17). Por essa razão há um alerta para a
própria participante, na sala de estar, numa
disposição frente a frente, com apoio em uma mesa.
necessidade de se avaliar as perguntas que, ao
O conteúdo da gravação foi transcrito na integra
serem feitas, são realmente úteis para o entrevistado
e literalmente. Somado a esses dados foram
ou entravarão o relacionamento compreensivo. Deve-
acrescentados as expressões não verbais registradas
se propiciar sempre a possibilidade de abertura para
pela pesquisadora durante a entrevista.
o diálogo e estar atento às limitações que as
A análise foi baseada nos conteúdos de vários
perguntas fechadas ocasionam. Porém, em algumas
autores que trataram da relação terapêutica não-
situações, é necessário obter informações e
diretiva(14-20). A “Pesquisa e ensino das relações
esclarecimentos. Ao se fazer questionamentos, tudo
interpessoais na enfermagem” é integrada à
depende do modo como se verbaliza as interrogações
disciplina EERP-5731 Relacionamento Interpessoal
e de se ter a sensibilidade do momento de
Enfermeiro-Paciente. Devido a isto os relatos da
interromper o fluxo de pensamentos e sentimentos
do entrevistado(17). Assim, na interação, alguns
experiência profissional de cada aluno presente na
disciplina serviram como base para a análise dessa
pedidos de maiores esclarecimentos foram feitos,
interação.
mas sempre na tentativa de não prejudicar o fluxo
discursivo, como no exemplo abaixo:
APRESENTAÇÃO DA INTERAÇÃO E ANÁLISE
Entrevistadora: - ...quando você diz “avoando”,
CRÍTICA
significa...
O horário marcado para a interação foi o das 14
Sandra: - ...correndo.
horas, mas, logo no seu início, Sandra solicitou que
Entrevistadora: - ...um-hum.
esse horário fosse postergado para as 16 horas, o
Sandra: - ...correndo, eu vou correndo.
que foi aceito, partindo do princípio de que a empatia
Entrevistadora: - ...para ir e voltar logo para a casa?
tem o seu princípio em posturas dessa natureza,
Sandra: - ...para voltar logo.
principalmente porque era necessário todo um
Há complicações no uso da expressão “por que”
nas perguntas diretivas(17). Esta expressão possui
esforço na tentativa de compreensão e respeito à
Sandra como pessoa, pensando que o horário inicial
uma conotação punitiva devido aos entraves na
marcado para a conversa não seria propício no
comunicação ocasionados pelo fato dessa expressão
sentido de oferecer um clima permissivo, capaz de
ser mal interpretada pelo entrevistado, seja porque
trazer a ela a confiança e liberdade para dizer sobre
compreenda
que
está
sendo
punido
seus receios, angústias e resistências.
entrevistador, seja porque realmente não saiba a
A interação então começou às 16 horas, mas
resposta da questão onde se usou o “por que”.
logo nos primeiros momentos de interação foi
Assim, ela deve ser evitada o máximo possível, mas
percebido certo receio da participante em se
se for usada, deve ser feita em um contexto onde o
expressar da maneira que lhe era habitual. Apesar da
entrevistado não perceba a atitude do entrevistador
tentativa de se desenvolver um clima de aceitação e
como ameaçadora, e entenda que o uso do “por que”
abertura para o diálogo, notava-se que a presença do
foi simplesmente para obter maiores esclarecimentos
gravador era um fator que bloqueava uma
das informações. Na interação foi usado o “por que”
comunicação livre, franca e sem receios, ilustrado
na seguinte frase: “você acha que você emagreceu,
pelos dizeres que segue:
por quê?”. Essa pergunta foi feita por se entender
Rev. Eletr. Enf. [Internet]. 2009;11(4):923-31. Available from: http://www.fen.ufg.br/revista/v11/n4/v11n4a17.htm.
Ramos TMB, Pedrão LJ, Furegato AR. A relação de ajuda não-diretiva junto ao cuidador de um idoso incapacitado.
que a participante possuía certa reflexão sobre o
Entrevistadora: - ...tudo bem...
assunto questionado e não entenderia a pergunta
(...)
como uma punição.
Sandra: - ...nós estamos com medo, eu e a Marta
Há também ocasiões em que o cliente ou
(irmã de Sandra) [silêncio]. E assim é minha vida...
entrevistado faz perguntas no sentido de pedir
Entrevistadora: - ...tudo bem (pausa), obrigada pela
informações, como aconteceu nesses segmentos da
conversa.
interação:
(...)
Sandra: - ...como você chama?
Sandra: - ...por isso que eles (médicos) tiraram o
Entrevistadora: - (a pesquisadora diz o nome).
antibiótico para limpar o corpo, para por aquele de
(...)
bolsinha. Quinhentos reais cada bolsinha....
Sandra: - ...porque já podia dar para dormir e fazer
Entrevistadora: - ...tá bom.
tudo de uma vez, não é?
(...)
Entrevistadora: - ...um-hum.
Sandra: - ...mas é que a (enfermeira) verdadeira
mesmo é essa que vem, que ela mora para cá, então
Nas
intervenções
terapêuticas
existem
atividades informantes e atividades estruturantes(19).
ela já veio até visitar ela (mãe de Sandra) aqui (casa
A atividade estruturante é o ato de o terapeuta
de Sandra). E de dia... que é o período da manhã até
determinar ao cliente quais acontecimentos, valores
meio-dia, da meio-dia até as sete é outra
e objetivos deve julgar significativos. A atividade
(enfermeira) e das sete já é outra (enfermeira). Que
informante são intervenções do terapeuta orientadas
das noite já é mais tranqüilo, né.
para o esclarecimento de questões do cliente. Na
Entrevistadora: - ...um-hum.
intervenção não-diretiva o terapeuta usa a atividade
Apesar da existência de perguntas diretivas, a
informante para que o cliente possa, através das
terapeuta tentou utilizar técnicas compreensivas que
informações recebidas, efetuar ele próprio a atividade
consistem em exprimir com os próprios termos o que
foi percebido daquilo que o cliente manifestou(15). O
estruturante. Assim, perguntas que afetam apenas
indiretamente o tratamento psicoterápico e que
terapeuta não julga, avalia ou interpreta, mas
servem para facilitar o esclarecimento do cliente,
procura seguir o ritmo de desenvolvimento do próprio
podem ser respondidas pelo terapeuta(15). No caso da
cliente, sem acelerá-lo ou retardá-lo. Tentou-se isso
interação descrita acima, ambas as perguntas foram
nos seguintes segmentos:
respondidas, porque o terapeuta considerou que elas
Sandra: - ...minha cunhada, só tem ela que me
possuíam uma atividade informante apenas.
ajuda. E a Marta quando vem de noite. Aqui, (mostra
O uso de respostas verbais como “an-han” e
os pulsos) estou com os pulsos até abertos.
“um-hum” foram empregadas diversas vezes na
Entrevistadora: - ...está com os pulsos até abertos.
interação. O uso desse tipo de resposta geralmente
(...)
indica que o entrevistador está dando abertura para
Sandra: - ...porque os alunos é... do jeitinho que
que o entrevistado se expresse e está entendendo o
“tava” lá não olhou nem na cara dela. Um encostou
que o outro diz, porém, pode também ser percebida
na parede e o outro escreveu. Aí só levantou, deu
como um sinal de aprovação ou crítica do que foi
uma olhadinha, “não vamos dar mais antibiótico.
dito(17). Portanto, dá margem a ambigüidade. Na
Vamos cortar os antibióticos.”. Viemos (Sandra e a
interação com Sandra, essa resposta verbal foi usada
mãe) embora. Agora quarta-feira é o retorno e eu
geralmente com o sentido de compreensão:
não sei como vai ser.
Sandra: - ...um (médico na nova equipe que atendeu
Entrevistadora: -...então você sentiu um descaso dos
a mãe de Sandra) encostou na parede, de lá. Ficou
médicos.
de boca aberta. E o outro (médico) de cabeça baixa,
Sandra: - ...dos médicos, dessa vez.
aqui, mas não olhou na minha mãe.
Entretanto apesar dos esforços em emitir
Entrevistadora: - ...um-hum.
respostas não-diretivas, a transcrição mostra
respostas classificadas como “elucidação” (15). A
Mas em alguns momentos, certas expressões
verbais que queriam ser transmitidas pela terapeuta
elucidação possui o componente da inferência e
com o sentido de compreensão, foram, talvez,
aproxima-se da interpretação. Precisa ser usada com
compreendidas por Sandra como se tivessem o
cautela, pois através dela o profissional pode impor
sentido de aprovação. É o caso desses segmentos:
valores e julgamentos próprios sobre o cliente,
Sandra: - ...não pôs nem a mão. Porque eu falei, “ó,
rompendo o clima de permissividade, respeito e livre
aceitação do outro(16).
ela (mãe de Sandra) é pesada na mesa, vocês
(médicos) não vão poder por ela”. Porque médico não
Em alguns casos a terapeuta considera ter
vai agüentar, o sobrinho do Lucas (vizinho) põe ela
havido inferências e imposições de ideias e valores
sozinha lá, né. Porque é ele quem leva. Aí só fez
sobre a participante. São os casos:
assim, olhou, tudo bem, “vamos tirar o antibiótico
Sandra: - ...também as coisas que são dadas, que
dela, até vir no retorno.”. Tem dias que eu faço
você consegue arrumar, duram muito pouco, parece
curativo três vezes porque vaza demais....
que...
Rev. Eletr. Enf. [Internet]. 2009;11(4):923-31. Available from: http://www.fen.ufg.br/revista/v11/n4/v11n4a17.htm.
Ramos TMB, Pedrão LJ, Furegato AR. A relação de ajuda não-diretiva junto ao cuidador de um idoso incapacitado.
Entrevistadora: -...é essa (almofada) que ela
Quando diz das feridas da mãe, Sandra parece
ter em si o sentimento de dor. Esta impressão é
comprou durou muito pouquinho. A única que ainda
está inteira é essa cadeira de banho aí, ó, que deram
transmitida de maneira tão direta à terapeuta que
para ela, que salvou.
esta última entende que as feridas são de Sandra e
(...)
não de sua mãe. O sentimento de empatia é
Entrevistadora: - ...então a senhora diz que a sua
essencial para que se possa compreender o outro em
sua vivência(18). No entanto, empatia é diferente da
vida está um pouco complicada...
Sandra: - ...a minha vida está complicadíssima.
simpatia, esta, consequente da identificação. A
(...)
identificação
pode
ser
nociva
em
(18)
Entrevistadora: - ...e você só sai para cuidar de sua
momentos , pois quando uma pessoa se identifica
saúde.
a outra, a primeira projeta seus pensamentos e
Sandra: - ...só, só.
sentimentos na situação vivenciada pela última.
Entrevistadora: - ...para o essencial.
Assim, a pessoa que realmente está vivendo aquela
(...)
situação não será compreendida em sua dor, valores,
Sandra: - ...as meninas, as minhas colegas estão
julgamentos e sentimentos.
conversando comigo, tem hora que elas falam:
No que tange a relação interpessoal entre
“acorda Sandra! Tua mãe está em boas mãos. É a
profissionais de saúde e paciente, vê-se na interação
tua irmã que está lá.” Então manda eu acordar.
que alguns conceitos que seriam base para o bom
Entrevistadora: -...é que parece que você assumiu a
estabelecimento de um relacionamento interpessoal
responsabilidade.
não são considerados na prática de atendimento. O
(...)
vínculo que o paciente desenvolve junto aos
Sandra: - ...é, porque eu tive que fazer um eletro.
profissionais parece não ser respeitado pelo serviço
Porque eu fui para o psiquiatra, porque eu estava
de saúde frequentado por Sandra e sua mãe.
numa situação, andando a noite inteira e fumando
Observa-se esse fato no relato:
dois maços de cigarro.
Sandra: - ...agora o dela... ela teve retorno faz 15
Entrevistadora: - ...muita ansiedade.
dias. Mudou toda a equipe.
Sandra: - ...é, aí meu médico aqui, o Dr. X,
Entrevistadora: - ...mudou.
encaminhou para o psiquiatra.
Sandra: - ...o médico dela foi embora. Não olharam
No primeiro segmento houve uma generalização,
(alguns médicos da nova equipe) na cara dela.
pois foi transmitido pela profissional que todas as
A mudança de toda equipe interrompe com o
coisas dadas duravam pouco. Fato que não ocorre,
processo de “identificação”, uma das fases do
processo interpessoal(20). Dessa forma, todo o
pois Sandra respondeu dizendo que “a cadeira de
banho” ainda estava inteira. No segundo segmento a
processo interpessoal que se inicia desde a entrada
terapeuta usa a expressão “um pouco complicada”.
do paciente ao serviço, até a sua saída, depara-se
Porém esse parece não ser o sentimento de Sandra,
com uma interrupção pela mudança de equipe, o que
que diz que sua vida está “complicadíssima”. No
dificulta uma interação terapêutica com vistas em um
terceiro segmento a terapeuta faz a inferência de que
ser humano integral, onde os aspectos psíquicos e
a saúde seria para a participante “essencial”,
sociais do paciente são considerados, além do
julgamento este que não foi transmitido por Sandra.
biológico.
No quarto segmento a profissional faz a inferência de
A empatia é um dos instrumentos mais
que
a
participante
teria
assumido
a
importantes para o profissional que realmente deseja
ajudar o outro(14). No relato de Sandra observa-se
“responsabilidade” de cuidado da mãe. Apesar do
discurso da participante conduzir a esse raciocínio,
que alguns profissionais não foram empáticos e que
ele não foi expresso por Sandra. No quinto segmento
algumas atitudes beiram a falta de respeito e ao
também há uma inferência, pois a terapeuta
descaso.
classifica o comportamento da participante como
Sandra: - ...o médico dela foi embora. (alguns
“ansiedade”, sem que ela tivesse dito que se sentia
médicos da nova equipe) Não olharam na cara dela.
ansiosa.
Simplesmente só levantou o curativinho, olhou... do
Ao voltar-se agora o foco de atenção às falas da
jeito que estava aqui escrevendo, não olhou. (...)
participante nota-se em diversos momentos da
Porque os alunos é... do jeitinho que “tava” lá não
interação uma identificação de Sandra com a mãe
olhou nem na cara dela. Um encostou na parede e o
doente. Assim poder-se-ía dizer que a participante
outro escreveu. Aí só levantou, deu uma olhadinha,
adota uma postura simpática com a condição
“não vamos dar mais antibiótico. Vamos cortar os
adoentada da mãe:
antibióticos.”. Viemos embora. Agora quarta-feira é o
Sandra: - ...porque aqui está tudo com ferida (indica
retorno e eu não sei como vai ser.
em seu corpo onde estariam as feridas).
(...)
Entrevistadora: - ...em você?
Sandra: - (Sandra fala sobre a última internação da
Sandra: - ...nela (mãe de Sandra).
mãe) ..., foi um aperto para mim. O banho da manhã
Rev. Eletr. Enf. [Internet]. 2009;11(4):923-31. Available from: http://www.fen.ufg.br/revista/v11/n4/v11n4a17.htm.
Ramos TMB, Pedrão LJ, Furegato AR. A relação de ajuda não-diretiva junto ao cuidador de um idoso incapacitado.
eu que tinha que dar. Eu que tinha que enrolar ela lá
que o médico Y. Agora a equipe dele eu não sei não.
na cama para ajudar por frauda. Enquanto elas
Eu estou com um pouco de medo.
(enfermeiras) arrumavam a cama, o banho era
(...)
sempre eu quem dava. Então para mim não adiantou
Sandra: - ...uma da noite... porque deu esses
nada. Eu fiquei lá três meses, porque ela é de idade e
problemas, desses dias aqui, de eu sozinha aqui sem
sempre tinha que ter um acompanhante. Então se
saber o que eu fazia, deu lá (no hospital). E a “G”
der uma dor de barriga no meio do dia, ninguém vem
(enfermeira) quando chegou, falou: “‘W!” Saiu todo
tirar ela da cama, manda ela fazer na roupa.
mundo da enfermaria, de tanto que era carniça. Só
(...)
que não deram remédio. (enfermeira G): “Vamos
Sandra: - ...nós estamos com um pouco de medo.
lavar!”. Aí catou aquelas bacias de hospital, as
Entrevistadora: - ...por causa dessa nova equipe.
panaiada. Com cuidado, porque aquela (enfermeira
(Sandra acena que sim com a cabeça).
G) teve uma paciência com a minha mãe.
A relação interpessoal, quando com um enfoque
(...)
Sandra: - ...é, e ela (enfermeira G) já veio até aqui
humanista, tem a finalidade e é estruturada para
ajudar o outro(14). A relação de ajuda não-diretiva
(casa de Sandra) ver ela (mãe de Sandra).
centra-se sobre a própria pessoa considerando-a em
No
hospital
os
enfermeiros
têm
seu aspecto humano e não apenas se restringe ao
responsabilidade de promover o crescimento pessoal
seu problema. Vê-se nos segmentos transcritos
do paciente atendido e assim desenvolver e melhorar
o contexto social desse local(20). Dessa forma,
acima exatamente o oposto, pois na pessoa em
questão é focalizada apenas a ferida e não o ser
posturas empáticas de respeito e atenção desses
humano que esta por trás de sua doença. Em
profissionais propiciam uma abertura onde as
conseqüência, a relação terapêutica não se faz, o que
dúvidas, questões, medos, angústias e decisões
produz como resultado o sentimento de medo e
podem ser compartilhados entre paciente-família-
insegurança com relação à nova equipe de saúde.
profissional, formando assim uma verdadeira relação
Antes os principais interesses das intervenções
interpessoal com finalidades terapêuticas.
em enfermagem centravam-se em desenvolver a
O segmento que está transcrito abaixo parece
saúde das pessoas. Atualmente a enfermagem visa
indicar que a relação empática do médico da nova
oferecer serviços de saúde preventivos e curativos, o
equipe de profissionais, com a participante e sua
que faz com que as práticas da enfermagem se
mãe, promoveu a possibilidade de que a participante
ampliem para funções educativas e terapêuticas(20).
estivesse mais próxima e aberta frente a esse
O processo de enfermagem será educativo e
profissional para expor suas reclamações, dúvidas e
terapêutico somente quando enfermeiro e paciente
angústias:
puderem se conhecer e se respeitar mutuamente,
Sandra: - ...portanto eu vou falar: doutor, aconteceu
realizando
assim
uma
verdadeira
relação
isso, assim, assim, na última internação dela. Ela
interpessoal. Uma relação interpessoal é aquela em
reclamou muito. Eu estou desconfiada que ela não
que as pessoas em contato conhecem-se o suficiente
anda por causa de tanta anestesia que deram.
para que possam enfrentar os problemas que surjam
Esse relato mostra o importante instrumento que
de forma cooperativa(20).
é a relação de ajuda compreendida por uma visão
Na
comunicação
interpessoal,
a
ajuda
empática, compreensiva e não-diretiva, e as
terapêutica que o enfermeiro pode dar, dirige-se para
mudanças ocasionadas por sua utilização nos
uma mudança da percepção do paciente, onde este,
contextos assistenciais em saúde.
através de uma elaboração interior que se dá
também pelo relacionamento interpessoal, possa
CONSIDERAÇÕES FINAIS
olhar e se comportar frente ao mundo de maneira
Considera-se que a relação de ajuda não-diretiva
transformada(14).
realizada atingiu alguns de seus objetivos, pois, de
O novo médico e algumas enfermeiras que
modo geral, possibilitou um clima compreensivo e de
atenderam em internações anteriores a mãe da
respeito, permitindo que a participante colocasse
participante parecem possuir uma atitude que
seus sentimentos em relação à situação vivenciada
propicia o relacionamento interpessoal:
de maneira tranqüila e aberta. Durante a interação
Sandra: - ...é. Só que esse (médico) que pegou o
observou-se que a participante refletiu sobre as
cargo do lugar do médico Y me parece que ele é um
dificuldades, medos e mudanças que ocorreram após
pouco melhor. Porque ele chegou feliz, “Dona W
o acidente de sua mãe, e os recursos de auxílio que
(mãe da participante), como vai?! E a senhora!” Para
podem ser buscados como apoio para enfrentar as
mim também deu a mão, cumprimentou.
dificuldades. Pode-se dizer que Sandra, ao ter mais
(...)
consciência do momento em que está vivendo,
Sandra: - ...eu estou com a impressão de que ele
tornou seus pensamentos e sentimentos mais
(médico da nova equipe) vai ser um pouco melhor
congruentes.
Rev. Eletr. Enf. [Internet]. 2009;11(4):923-31. Available from: http://www.fen.ufg.br/revista/v11/n4/v11n4a17.htm.
Ramos TMB, Pedrão LJ, Furegato AR. A relação de ajuda não-diretiva junto ao cuidador de um idoso incapacitado.
Vários pontos foram abordados e refletidos, o
Sandra expressou na interação, que as atitudes
pouco empáticas e pouco compreensivas de alguns
que possibilitou uma maior conscientização sobre
determinados aspectos.
profissionais geraram nela um sentimento de
Sandra analisou as dificuldades que vem
ansiedade e insegurança. Durante a interação,
experimentando desde o momento em que sua mãe
Sandra considerou as qualidades do novo médico,
ficou incapacitada de andar. Refletiu sobre a sua
que apresentava uma postura empática, e decidiu ir
responsabilização para com o cuidado da mãe, e a
conversar com ele sobre seus medos e dúvidas, antes
sua tentativa de dar a ela uma melhor alimentação e
da cirurgia da mãe.
conforto. Relatou as novas coisas que teve de
Essa atitude mostra que uma postura empática e
aprender como, por exemplo, cozinhar novos
compreensiva dos profissionais favorece uma melhor
alimentos e fazer os curativos. Refletiu sobre a sua
comunicação entre profissional e usuário e um
preocupação de dar sempre o melhor para mãe e o
melhor atendimento e acolhimento. Diante das novas
sentimento de remorso que poderia vir a ter se sua
diretrizes do SUS que traz como proposta o
acolhimento das necessidades do usuário e um
mãe falecesse sem que tivesse seus desejos e
vontades atendidos. Da mesma forma, dizia da sua
serviço usuário-centrado, a relação de ajuda não-
dificuldade em se retirar do papel de cuidadora, pois,
diretiva pode ser um instrumento de grande
mesmo quando realizava outras atividades, estava
contribuição para que a proposta de acolhimento
preocupada com o bem-estar de sua mãe.
realmente se efetive.
A dificuldade financeira para comprar os objetos
de cuidado necessários, como por exemplo:
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idosos no Brasil: análise da Pesquisa Nacional por
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[update 2009 jun 15, cited 2009 jun 15]. Plan of
No entanto, alguns aspectos positivos foram
action on health and aging: older adults in the
analisados na interação. No começo, Sandra afirmava
Americas
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2.pdf
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3. IBGE [Internet]. Brasília: IBGE, 2000. [update
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2009 jun 15, cited 2009 jun 15]. Pesquisa nacional
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Núcleo
de
Estudos
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Saúde
Pública
sobre essa nova internação, denotando especial
Envelhecimento,
Fundação
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AL_05.pdf.

frases de relaçõ de ajuda

Não confunda jamais conhecimento com sabedoria. Um o ajuda a ganhar a vida; o outro a construir uma vida.

Sandra Carey

Adicionar à minha coleção Na coleção de 157 pessoasMais Informação
A sorte ajuda os audazes.

Virgílio

Adicionar à minha coleção Na coleção de 17 pessoasMais Informação A nossa felicidade será naturalmente proporcional em relação à felicidade que fizermos para os outros.

Allan Kardec

Adicionar à minha coleção Na coleção de 121 pessoasMais Informação A educação para o sofrimento, evitaria senti-lo, em relação a casos que não o merecem.

Carlos Drummond de Andrade

Adicionar à minha coleção Na coleção de 95 pessoasMais Informação A ideia do suicídio é uma grande consolação: ajuda a suportar muitas noites más.

Friedrich Nietzsche

Adicionar à minha coleção Na coleção de 70 pessoasMais Informação Ajuda o teu semelhante a levantar a carga, mas não a levá-la.

Pitágoras

Adicionar à minha coleção Na coleção de 59 pessoasMais Informação Não se pode ensinar nada a um homem; só é possivel ajudá-lo a encontrar a coisa dentro de si.

Galileu Galilei

Adicionar à minha coleção Na coleção de 49 pessoasMais Informação Ser pobre não é crime, mas ajuda muito a chegar lá.

Millôr Fernandes

Adicionar à minha coleção Na coleção de 29 pessoasMais Informação Há quatro espécies de amigos que o são sinceramente: o que ajuda, o que permanece igual na prosperidade e no infortúnio, o que dá um bom conselho e o que tem uma simpatia real por nós.

Digha-Nikaya

Adicionar à minha coleção Na coleção de 25 pessoasMais Informação O amor é a arte de criar algo com a ajuda da capacidade do outro.

Bertolt Brecht

Adicionar à minha coleção Na coleção de 24 pessoasMais Informação O silêncio, tal como a modéstia, ajuda muito numa conversação.

Michel de Montaigne

Adicionar à minha coleção Na coleção de 15 pessoasMais Informação Um idealista é uma pessoa que ajuda os outros a prosperar.

Henry Ford

Adicionar à minha coleção Na coleção de 14 pessoasMais Informação A teoria ajuda-nos a suportar a nossa ignorância dos fatos.

Jorge Santayana

Adicionar à minha coleção Na coleção de 11 pessoasMais Informação O que é o homem na natureza? Um nada em relação ao infinito, um tudo em relação ao nada, um ponto a meio entre nada e tudo.

Blaise Pascal

Adicionar à minha coleção Na coleção de 11 pessoasMais Informação Quando um homem tem força de vontade, os deuses dão uma ajuda.

Ésquilo

Adicionar à minha coleção Na coleção de 11 pessoasMais Informação DESPEDIDA

Existem duas dores de amor:
A primeira é quando a relação termina e a gente,
seguindo amando, tem que se acostumar com a ausência do outro,
com a sensação de perda, de rejeição e com a falta de perspectiva,
já que ainda estamos tão embrulhados na dor
que não conseguimos ver luz no fim do túnel.

A segunda dor é quando começamos a vislumbrar a luz no fim do túnel.

A mais dilacerante é a dor física da falta de beijos e abraços,
a dor de virar desimportante para o ser amado.
Mas, quando esta dor passa, começamos um outro ritual de despedida:
a dor de abandonar o amor que sentíamos.
A dor de esvaziar o coração, de remover a saudade, de ficar livre,
sem sentimento especial por aquela pessoa. Dói também…

Na verdade, ficamos apegados ao amor tanto quanto à pessoa que o gerou.
Muitas pessoas reclamam por não conseguir se desprender de alguém.
É que, sem se darem conta, não querem se desprender.
Aquele amor, mesmo não retribuído, tornou-se um souvenir,
lembrança de uma época bonita que foi vivida…
Passou a ser um bem de valor inestimável, é uma sensação à qual
a gente se apega. Faz parte de nós.
Queremos, logicamente, voltar a ser alegres e disponíveis,
mas para isso é preciso abrir mão de algo que nos foi caro por muito tempo,
que de certa maneira entranhou-se na gente,
e que só com muito esforço é possível alforriar.

É uma dor mais amena, quase imperceptível.
Talvez, por isso, costuma durar mais do que a ‘dor-de-cotovelo’
propriamente dita. É uma dor que nos confunde.
Parece ser aquela mesma dor primeira, mas já é outra. A pessoa que nos
deixou já não nos interessa mais, mas interessa o amor que sentíamos por
ela, aquele amor que nos justificava como seres humanos,
que nos colocava dentro das estatísticas: “Eu amo, logo existo”.

Despedir-se de um amor é despedir-se de si mesmo.
É o arremate de uma história que terminou,
externamente, sem nossa concordância,
mas que precisa também sair de dentro da gente…
E só então a gente poderá amar, de novo.

Martha Medeiros

Adicionar à minha coleção Na coleção de 608 pessoasMais Informação O amor não acaba, nós é que mudamos

Um homem e uma mulher vivem uma intensa relação de amor, e depois de alguns anos se separam, cada um vai em busca do próprio caminho, saem do raio de visão um do outro. Que fim levou aquele sentimento? O amor realmente acaba?

O que acaba são algumas de nossas expectativas e desejos, que são subtituídos por outros no decorrer da vida. As pessoas não mudam na sua essência, mas mudam muito de sonhos, mudam de pontos de vista e de necessidades, principalmente de necessidades. O amor costuma ser amoldado à nossa carência de envolvimento afetivo, porém essa carência não é estática, ela se modifica à medida que vamos tendo novas experiências, à medida que vamos aprendendo com as dores, com os remorsos e com nossos erros todos. O amor se mantém o mesmo apenas para aqueles que se mantém os mesmos.

Se nada muda dentro de você, o amor que você sente, ou que você sofre, também não muda. Amores eternos só existem para dois grupos de pessoas. O primeiro é formado por aqueles que se recusam a experimentar a vida, para aqueles que não querem investigar mais nada sobre si mesmo, estão contentes com o que estabeleceram como verdade numa determinada época e seguem com esta verdade até os 120 anos. O outro grupo é o dos sortudos: aqueles que amam alguém, e mesmo tendo evoluído com o tempo, descobrem que o parceiro também evoluiu, e essa evolução se deu com a mesma intensidade e seguiu na mesma direção. Sendo assim, conseguem renovar o amor, pois a renovação particular de cada um foi tão parecida que não gerou conflito.

O amor não acaba. O amor apenas sai do centro das nossas atenções. O tempo desenvolve nossas defesas, nos oferece outras possibilidades e a gente avança porque é da natureza humana avançar. Não é o sentimento que se esgota, somos nós que ficamos esgotados de sofrer, ou esgotados de esperar, ou esgotados da mesmice. Paixão termina, amor não. Amor é aquilo que a gente deixa ocupar todos os nossos espaços, enquanto for bem-vindo, e que transferimos para o quartinho dos fundos quando não funciona mais, mas que nunca expulsamos definitivamente de casa.

Martha Medeiros

Adicionar à minha coleção Na coleção de 249 pessoasMais Informação A Moral não me ajuda. Sou antagônico nato. Sou uma daquelas pessoas que são feitas para exceções, não para regras.
(De Profundis)

Oscar Wilde

Adicionar à minha coleção Na coleção de 148 pessoasMais Informação Deixa eu dizer que te amo
Deixa eu pensar em você
Isso me acalma
Me acolhe a alma
Isso me ajuda a viver

Hoje contei pra as paredes
Coisas do meu coração
Passei no tempo
Caminhei nas horas
Mais do que passo a paixão
É um espelho sem razão
Quer amor fique aqui

Meu peito agora dispara
Vivo em constante alegria
É o amor quem está aqui

Marisa Monte

Adicionar à minha coleção Na coleção de 16 pessoasMais Informação Renda-se, como eu me rendi. Mergulhe no que você não conhece como eu mergulhei. Não se preocupe em entender, viver ultrapassa qualquer entendimento.

Clarice Lispector
THE POST–ROGERIAN THERAPY OF ROBERT CARKHUFF

by Dharmavidya David Brazier


Carl Rogers was the first researcher to put recording machines into the therapy consulting room. By doing so he shifted the emphasis of psychotherapy research away from examining the philosophical or theoretical assumptions held by therapists and towards the examination of what they actually do. From this came a great wealth of studies of psychotherapy process and outcomes. This was definitely a revolution in the history of applied psychology. There was a hope that it would now be possible to determine with scientific accurasy what it was that successful therapists did that unsuccessful therapists were failing to do.

This initial enthusiasm, however, waned as data accumulated without any conclusive or definitive pattern emerging. It has not proved possible to isolate behaviours by therapists which correllate consistently with positive outcomes from therapy. Some researchers such as Eysenck (1960, 1965) went so far as to propose that, in fact, therapy was ineffective. They said that as far as the statistics showed, populations who did not receive therapy did just as well as comparable groups who did.

Rogers himself was at this time developing his own theory of what was going on and it was he himself who shifted the debate back toward values and attitudes. He did this by making the, at that time extremely radical, proposal that in circumstances in which a client was in psychological contact with a therapist, if the therapist could provide a psychological climate which was defineable in terms of three dimensions, and three only, then this would bring about constructive personality change in the client. The three dimensions or "core conditions" were 1. empathy, 2. congruence and 3. unconditional positive regard.

This theory was radical in that it proposed:
1. that the three core conditions were essentially personal qualities rather than techniques;
2. that this hypothesis applied no matter what the diagnostic category of the client might be;
3. that the defined psychological climate was "both necessary and sufficient", i.e. nothing else was needed.

Actually, Rogers' theory, when examined in detail, has six elements in all, since he says that the "core conditions" operate in conditions where 4. client and counsellor are in psychological contact, 5. the client is in an incongruent state and 6. the counsellor's condition of accurate empathy is at least minimally communicated to the client. What this last point means is that not only must the counsellor have accurately understood what it is like to be in the client's shoes, but also, the client must realize that the counsellor knows. These latter three elements have been made a good deal of by some other commentators on Rogers, but they do not figure strongly in the work of Carkhuff and they are simply mentioned here for the sake of completeness. What Carkhuff was to focus upon was the question whether three core conditions was enough and we will come to this point in due course.

The implications of Rogers' theory are often over-looked. They were that:
1. much of the training which psychotherapists received in university professional programmes would be irrelevant;
2. that a great deal in therapy depended upon the therapist "having his heart in the right place" rather than on technical expertise;
3. the enormous amount of professional time and resources expended on assessment and diagnosis may be a waste of time; and
4. there may be no essential difference between what constitutes a good psychotherapeutic relationship and what constitutes a good helping relationship in many other settings such as education, social work, child rearing or even management consultancy.

Rogers' work pointed toward an erosion of the boundary between therapy and many other helping activities and invited the possibility that non-professional workers might often do as good a job as highly trained professionals.

Robert Carkhuff studied and worked with Rogers. Later, they parted company and their respective interests took them in somewhat different directions. Carkhuff's work, however, built upon that of Rogers and did so in particular by emphasizing and developing many of the themes already mentioned above. Carkhuff was involved in the research that Rogers initiated to test the theory of the three core conditions. In particular this involved the attempt to "operationalize" these conditions: to make them measurable. In order to do this, rating scales were devised for accurate empathy, congruence and unconditional positive regard, for the therapist and "depth of self exploration" for the client. By way of example, figure 1 shows a rating scale used for assessing degrees of congruence.

Together with Charles Truax, Carkhuff reviewed a great range of research, some done by themselves and much by others. They published their results in the book Towards Effective Counseling and Psychotherapy (1967). Their startling conclusion was that the reason that the statistics reviewed by Eysenck showed that on average there was no difference in outcomes between "treated" and "untreated" populations was that in the "treated" groups there was a much wider spread of results than in the "untreated" groups. What this means, in general terms, is that a group of potential clients who receive no therapy tend, with the passing of time, to improve modestly or stay much the same whereas those who receive therapy improve markedly or get worse.

This reworking of the data threw a completely different light upon the situation. Rather than it being the case that therapy made no difference, it now appeared that therapy made a great deal of difference but that this difference was not always in the desired direction: "therapy may be 'for better or for worse'" (Carkhuff 1984, p.21). This finding now made it plain that it was even more important than before to find out what distinguished the

Level Criteria
One Therapist is clearly defensive and there is explicit evidence of considerable discrepancy between what s/he says and what s/he experience. There may be striking contradictions in the therapist's statements and the content of her/his statements may contradict voice qualities and non-verbal cues.
Two Therapist responds appropriately but in a professional rather than a personal manner, giving the impression that his/her responses are said because they sound good from a distance but do not express what s/he really feels or means. There is a somewhat contrived or rehearsed quality or air of professionalism present.
Three Therapist is implicitly, but not explicitly either defensive or professional
Four There is neither implicit nor explicit evidence of defensiveness nor the presence of a facade. Therapist shows no evidence of self incongruence.
Five Therapist is freely and deeply him/herself in the relationship. Therapist is open to experiences and feelings both pleasant and hurtful without defensiveness or retreat into professionalism. Therapist accepts and recognises contradictory feelings. therapist is clearly being him/herself in all his/her responses whether personally meaningful or trite. Therapist need not express personal feelings but whether he is giving advice, reflecting, interpreting or sharing experiences, it is clear that he is being very much him/herself so that verbalizations match inner experiences.


therapy that worked from that which not only did not work, but might actually be harmful. On this question, Truax and Carkhuff's conclusions in 1967 were largely in line with those of Rogers. They high lighted the same "core conditions" as the crucial factors. And they drew similar conclusions to Rogers about implications. About this time, too, Aspy and Roebuck (1972) published research into the importance of the core conditions in the field of education and Rogers himself was talking about how the core conditions had much wider application than just counselling and psychotherapy. Carkhuff (1987) eventually concluded


These effects have been generalized in all areas of helping and human relationships where the "more knowing" person influences the "less knowing" person: parent-child relations; teacher-student relations; counselor-client relations; and therapist-patient relations. In general, the "less knowing" persons will move toward the levels of functioning of the "more knowing" persons over time, depending on both the extensiveness and intensity of contacts: helpees of high-level functioning helpers get better on a variety of process and outcome indices, while helpees of low-level functioning helpers get worse. (p.239)


Carkhuff's thinking was going in the same direction as Rogers' but was tending to go even further. Carkhuff is here beginning to evolve a theory that
1. the relationship is all important in human growth and development;
2. constructive relationships can be defined in terms of a list of factors;
3. these factors are, at least to a reasonably workable degree, observable and measurable;
4. the absence of these factors produces relationships which can cause people to deteriorate, just as their presence helps people grow.

This last point is a key stone of Carkhuff's theory and was the basis for its further elaboration. Rogers gave only a very sketchy idea of his theory of how people get worse. He concentrated almost all his attention on how to help clients release their growth potential (or "actualizing tendency"). Some of Rogers' other associates developed from this sketch a theory of "conditions of worth" as the explanation for deterioration. According to the Conditions of Worth Theory, people are born with their actualizing tendency intact, but this needs the core conditions for its fulfilment. In real life, the core conditions are not optimally provided. In fact, parents, teachers and other influential adults place conditions upon the offer of positive regard to the young person. In effect, they say to the child: We will regard you well if you fulfil the following conditions....... According to the Conditions of Worth Theory, it is this conditionality, the "if", which causes the developing child to distort their natural developmental trajectory and, in varying degrees, to become less than they could have been.

The Conditions of Worth idea has become widely established in the theorizing of many post-Rogerian writers, but it does not figure centrally in Carkhuff's work. In the Conditions of Worth Theory the suggestion is that what distorts is the presence of conditions of worth over a lengthy period of the developing person's life. In Carkhuff's theory, what causes deterioration is the absence of conditions for enhancement at points of crisis. He conceptualized life as a series of turning points at which people can grow or deteriorate. The quality of relationships available to them in these critical threshhold situations was, he suggested, the determining factor. If, at a point of crisis, a person turns to others who can offer the growth promoting psychological climate defined by the core conditions, then they are likely to come out of the crisis wiser and more mature. If this climate cannot be provided at such time, then they are likely to deteriorate.

The people who provide the necessary conditions may be professional helpers: counsellors, psychotherapists, social workers, teachers or other members of the helping professions. they might also be members of the individuals indiginous community. In many ways, members of the indiginous community are better placed to offer the necessary conditions because, sharing the "client's" culture, they are more readily able to empathize.

Carkhuff, like Rogers, was alive to the implications which this kind of research finding had for the training of potential helpers and therapists. In this respect he came to conclusions which were consistent with the findings outlined so far, conclusions which had major implications if accepted. He again based his conclusions of reviews of a wide range of research and was interested to compare findings about "lay" and "professional" helpers. Lay helpers will generally have received some training in counselling skills, but will not have completed an academic professional training qualification. The research that Carkhuff is relying on was all done in America, mostly in the 1960s. Professional training programmes have changed somewhat since then, partly under his influence. Nonetheless, his conclusions still have some force. The following quotations from Carkhuff's major two volume work Helping and Human Relations (1984 edition) summarize his position:


lay trainees function at levels essentially as high or higher (never significantly lower) and engage clients in counseling process movement at levels as high or higher than professional trainees (p.5)


lay persons effect changes on the indexes assessed that are at least as great or, all too frequently, greater (never significantly less), than professionals (p.7)


the professional trainee is functioning at higher levels prior to training and at lower levels following training, both in relation to lay trainees and himself (p.7)


While the results of lay programs exhibit trainee gains on those dimensions related to client change, the professional programs exhibit a drop in the level of trainee functioning over the course of graduate training, with the largest drop seeming to occur between the first and second year. Although with experience practitioners appear to recoup some of their losses in functioning, there are direct suggestions that many may never again function at the level at which they did when they entered graduate school. Two follow-up evaluation studies indicate that those who drop out of professional training tend to be functioning at higher levels of facilitative conditions than those who stay in. (pp.9-10)



Some of the explanations which Carkhuff adduces for this situations are:


Perhaps the lay person is motivated to help simply because he is most in contact with the need for help, for himself and for others (p.7)


we can conclude that both the means and the intentions of prospective lay helpers are more humble and direct, or honest, at the beginning of training than the means and intentions of prospective professional helpers (p.7)


[selection processes for lay programmes] select persons who exhibit a sincere regard for others, tolerance and ability to accept people with values different from one's own, a healthy regard for the self, a warmth and sensitivity in dealing with others and a capacity for empathy. The professional training programmes, in turn, are dominated by highly intellective indexes of selection, primarily grade point average (p.8)


evidence indicates that just as clients converge on the level of functioning of their counselors, so do trainees converge on the level of functioning of their trainers. The trainees of trainers who are functioning at high levels demonstrate uniformly positive change; those of trainers who are functioning at moderate or low levels demonstrate little, no, or deteriorative change. It can be inferred that the level of functioning of the professional trainer may account in large part for the negative results in studies of graduate training (p.9)


helpers who are most different from their helpees in race and social class have the greatest difficulty effecting constructive helpee changes (p.11)


Carkhuff concludes that professional helpers tend to rely upon "highly elaborate, highly cognitive systems" (p.10) and are anxious to maintain their professional role whereas "the lay counselor has less expertise; he has only himself (and sometimes his supervisor) to rely upon" (p.10). Lay helpers thus have a number of advantages as helpers:
1. it is easier for them to enter the client's milieu;
2. the relationships they establish are more peer-like;
3. they have less role constraints and so can take a more active part in the client's life;
4. they may empthize more genuinely;
5. they may have skills from their own life experience which provide a more suitable model for the client.

Another important implication of Carkhuff's findings is that they tend to break down the hard and fast divide between helpers and helpees. "This approach represents the helper therapy principle by which persons in need of help may be selected and trained to offer help. At a minimum there is evidence to suggest that indiginous persons giving help demonstrate constructive change themselves as a consequence of being cast in the helping role" (p.13).

So far we have seen how Carkhuff's conclusions were in the same direction as those of Rogers and, in fact, suggested that Rogers' had not gone far enough. Later, however, Carkhuff attempted a further development of his approach which Rogers would certainly not have supported. This was the attempt to integrate client-centred and behaviouristic methods. There were, he suggested, basically two broad approaches to helping. These he called the "insight" approach and the "action" approach. Psychoanalysis and client-centred therapy belong to the former. Behaviour therapy and various branches of applied psychology which concern themselves, for instance, with matching people to careers, belong to the latter. Carkhuff believed that these two types of approach are each incomplete, that each needs the other. Carkhuff's approach was generally to review existing research extensively and there was plenty of research to suggest that behavioural approaches got results as well as client-centred approaches. He therefore became interested in achieving an integration of the two approaches.

He saw this as an integration of the "hard" and "soft" or the "masculine" and "feminine" aspects of helping: "In effective helping processes both the male and female components are present to varying degrees, depending upon the needs of the person being helped. The effective helper is both mother and father. The whole person has incorporated both the responsive and assertive components. He (or she) can understand his internal and external physical, emotional and intellectual world with sensitivity and can act upon these worlds with responsibility" (Carkhuff 1984, p.34).

Carkhuff's integration was achieved by extending the list of core conditions. He eventually arrived at a list of eight factors which were divided into two categories, as follows:

CATEGORIES FACTORS
Responsive Dimensions Empathy
Respect
Specificity
Initiative Dimensions Genuineness
Self-disclosure
Confrontation
Immediacy
Concreteness


Sometimes Carkhuff conceptualizes the "responsive" and "initiative" dimensions as complementary aspects of a single seamless process, and sometimes he sees them as phases of a two step process, the first phase involving "inward probing" and the second "emergent directionality".

To some extent, Carkhuff's eight dimensions are simply an elaboration of Rogers three core conditions. Rogers' condition of "accurate empathy" has been separated into empathy, specificity and concreteness. Congruence has been divided into genuineness, self-disclosure and immediacy. Confrontation may include elements of all three of Rogers' conditions. It is possible to argue that everything Carkhuff says here is at least implicit in Rogers. On the other hand, this new way of presenting the ideas does tend to give them a somewhat different slant. One way of understanding this is to consider what Rogers was as well as what he articulated. What matters, after all, is not whether one adheres to the best list of principles so much as whether those principles are harmoniously integrated in one's way of being with another person and being with the world at large. Rogers was, without doubt, a disciplined and robust personality. Although he articulated the "soft" dimensions, he also exhibited the "hard" ones in his way of relating. Indeed, near the end of his life, he gave an interview in which he admitted that he had articulated the "soft" dimensions primarily because they were the ones which he himself had had most difficulty with. Such things as personal discipline he took for granted. What Carkhuff has done is to make this aspect more explicit.

In doing so, however, he has shifted the balance of the theory. There are more "initiative" dimensions than "responsive" ones in Carkhuff's theory and this does represent an attempt not just to redress the balance of Rogers' theory, but actually to shift its emphasis toward a more active approach. Carkhuff is, in effect, saying, firstly, that while gaining insight in therapy is valuable nothing will come of it unless it is translated into action and, secondly, that the therapist has a part to play in the process of helping the client translate personal learning into purposeful behaviour.

Carkhuff's theory of personal growth emphasizes the importance of the responses people make at points of crisis: "Growth or deteriorative processes take place at crisis points in an individual's life... The response the individual makes at the crisis point increases the probability of his responding in a similar manner at the next crisis point" (Carkhuff 1984, p.27). It also emphasizes that the relationships which a person relies upon at such crisis times can be the key factor in determining whether they grow or deteriorate. Unfortunately, individuals who function consistently at high levels on the kinds of factors which Carkhuff's theory identifies as growth enhancing, are rare. The implication of all this, therefore, is that everything points in the direction of the importance of enhancing the growth promoting factors in both helpers and helpees. In this respect, we all help ourselves by helping one another and vice versa. It also carries the idea that a "helping society" might be evolved: "In a sense we are suggesting a society in which we begin a chain reaction by working initially with those individuals who are best equipped to utilize and transmit their experience. In turn, these people would select and work with other people in a similar manner" (Carkhuff 1984, p.74).

This approach attempts to get over two logical problems which remained in Rogers' theory. One of these derives from the fact that according to Rogers it is the counsellor who provides the necessary conditions for the counsellee, leaving one wondering whether the counsellor also benefits, or whether the gulf between these two roles can be crossed. Rogers implies that it can, but his theory seems to point the other way. Carkhuff asserts that what is helpful for the client is for them to acquire the same characteristics as typify the effective helper. He thus came to be very enthusiastic about programmes which sought to train "indiginous helpers". Thus, programs to train psychiatric patients to communicate with others or parents to work with their own disturbed children won his approval.

The second problem in Rogers' theory becomes clear when we realize that a good deal of what goes on on Rogerian training programmes is actually behavioural training. Trainees are taught what an empathic response is by demonstation, practice and positive feedback for accurate performance. Thus there is an apparent contradiction between the contention that clients will grow and learn and change through a "non-directive" approach in which they learn by self-initiated discovery whereas those who are learning the skills by which such discovery is to be facilitated are actually trained by a completely different approach - by the very approach, in fact, which many advocates of the person-centred approach regard as anathema. Carkhuff's approach does not run into this problem because he sees the behavioural and discovery approaches as complementary. Such methods as behavioural training and systematic desensitization work, so there is no point in excluding them from consideration in appropriate cases simply on dogmatic grounds.

Carkhuff's preferred mode of helping is to help the person help themselves. This may be in very practical ways:


Courses of action may.. be.. very simple common sense procedures for attaining goals that are relevant to the helpee's functioning.. having attained some depth of self-understanding, whatever their developmental level they are asked to treat themselves as helpees and to develop effective modes of treatment for themselves. (Carkhuff 1984, p.249)


Here again we see that what is required of the trainee and what is required of the client are, in principle, the same.

By integrating client-centred and behavioural approaches Carkhuff was bringing together two systems which each rely upon a relatively simple conceptualization of the helping process. The core conditions which he proposes are, in his system, seen as the factors necessary to facilitate inter-personal learning: learning which is relevant to life, learning which is relevant to education, and learning which is relevant to work.

He thus evolved an approach which has wide appeal and is relatively simple to apply. It carries though some of the implications of Rogers' work, giving possession of the helping process back to ordinary people and breaking down the boundaries between different human relations professions. The resulting approach is eclectic:


From an eclectic stance we are free to research the basic core of facilitative conditions, and the selective use of techniques... there is now no need for the artificial dichotomy separating rigor and meaningfulness... We have attempted throughout our work to integrate the basic core of facilitative conditions with learning in a social context (Berenson & Carkhuff 1967, p.448)


Yet this is an eclecticism which is not simply a collection of expedients. It is based on a set of rational principles which integrate elements from different sources in a principled way.

The strengths of Carkhuffs approach is that it extends the radical assessment begun by Carl Rogers and challenges us to consider whether our approach to the helping task is deeply genuine, whether we really commit our caring capacity to our clients or whether we are simply playing a professional role.

It undermines much of the posturing of professional politics which seldom really serve the interests of clients. It invites us to adopt a more down to earth approach to the task of helping in all its many guises. It goes beyond and, in its own way, resolves some of the inherent contradictions left in the theory begun by Rogers. It, in its own terms, integrates the "male" and "female" aspects of helping.

The weaknesses are perhaps that it adopts an overly rational approach which could be accused of neglecting some of the infinite subtlety of the inter-personal process and, in particular, of those aspects of process which are generally referred to as "unconscious" and paradoxical.

In this respect it could be accused of naivety. Further, it could be said that this aspect has paved the way for some even more mechanistic approaches to the helping task whereby trainees are equipped with a number of rather shallow "skills" which, at worst, are then rather crassly used. In this respect Carkhuff may not have escaped from the sin of bringing into being the very syndrome of insensitive professionalism which he began by condemning.

Nonetheless, Carkhuff's approach represents one of the more influential post-Rogerian currents. It is by no means the only way in which Rogers work has been built upon since he first began to advance his theories in the 1950s and 1960s, but it is one which has made an important contribution to an important on-going creative debate. Each generation attempts to redress the balance or fill in the gaps left by the previous one. Rogers wrote against the background of a situation in psychology where the two dominant forces were behaviourism and psychoanalysis. He produced a theory which out did behaviourism in the elegant simplicity of its basic axioms yet retained the central focus upon the subjective dimension of experience which had been advanced by psychoanalysis. In the process, he articulated a message of trust in the human spirit which had immediate and widespread appeal, especially in the liberal social climate which prevailed in the 1960s.

Carkhuff's work may be seen as a continuation of many of Rogers' central themes. He is, just like Rogers, trying to integrate the rational positivism of behaviourism with the subjective depth of the psycho-dynamic approaches, without falling into the pitfalls of either.

That is, he is trying to avoid the mechanisation and technicalization of the therapy process which can easily follow from behaviourism while also avoiding the woolly thinking and pathologizing tendencies of the analytic approaches.

How far he succeeds is a matter for debate. Perhaps the more important question is whether, another generation on, we can do so ourselves.